banner



Home  ›  On What Basis Do Taxonomists Group Animals Into Phyla

On What Basis Do Taxonomists Group Animals Into Phyla

Written By Friday, June 17, 2022 Add Comment Edit

High level taxonomic rank for organisms sharing a like body programme

For other uses, run across Phyla.

Life Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

In biology, a phylum (; plural: phyla) is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. Traditionally, in phytology the term segmentation has been used instead of phylum, although the International Code of Classification for algae, fungi, and plants accepts the terms as equivalent.[i] [ii] [3] Depending on definitions, the beast kingdom Animalia contains about 31 phyla, the plant kingdom Plantae contains near 14 phyla, and the fungus kingdom Fungi contains about viii phyla. Current research in phylogenetics is uncovering the relationships between phyla, which are contained in larger clades, similar Ecdysozoa and Embryophyta.

General clarification [edit]

The term phylum was coined in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel from the Greek phylon (φῦλον, "race, stock"), related to phyle (φυλή, "tribe, association").[iv] [5] Haeckel noted that species constantly evolved into new species that seemed to retain few consistent features among themselves and therefore few features that distinguished them every bit a group ("a self-contained unity"). "Wohl aber ist eine solche reale und vollkommen abgeschlossene Einheit dice Summe aller Species, welche aus einer und derselben gemeinschaftlichen Stammform allmählig sich entwickelt haben, wie z. B. alle Wirbelthiere. Diese Summe nennen wir Stamm (Phylon)." which translates every bit: Withal, perchance such a real and completely self-contained unity is the aggregate of all species which accept gradually evolved from 1 and the same common original form, as, for instance, all vertebrates. We proper name this aggregate [a] Stamm [i.e., race] (Phylon). In plant taxonomy, August Westward. Eichler (1883) classified plants into five groups named divisions, a term that remains in use today for groups of plants, algae and fungi.[1] [6] The definitions of zoological phyla have changed from their origins in the 6 Linnaean classes and the four embranchements of Georges Cuvier.[vii]

Informally, phyla tin can exist thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan.[8] At its most basic, a phylum tin can be divers in two ways: every bit a group of organisms with a certain degree of morphological or developmental similarity (the phenetic definition), or a grouping of organisms with a certain caste of evolutionary relatedness (the phylogenetic definition).[9] Attempting to define a level of the Linnean hierarchy without referring to (evolutionary) relatedness is unsatisfactory, just a phenetic definition is useful when addressing questions of a morphological nature—such as how successful different body plans were.[ citation needed ]

Definition based on genetic relation [edit]

The most of import objective measure in the higher up definitions is the "certain degree" that defines how different organisms need to exist members of different phyla. The minimal requirement is that all organisms in a phylum should be conspicuously more than closely related to 1 another than to any other grouping.[9] Even this is problematic because the requirement depends on knowledge of organisms' relationships: as more than information get available, particularly from molecular studies, we are better able to determine the relationships between groups. So phyla can be merged or carve up if information technology becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not. For example, the bearded worms were described as a new phylum (the Pogonophora) in the centre of the 20th century, merely molecular work almost one-half a century later found them to be a group of annelids, so the phyla were merged (the bearded worms are now an annelid family).[10] On the other hand, the highly parasitic phylum Mesozoa was divided into two phyla (Orthonectida and Rhombozoa) when it was discovered the Orthonectida are probably deuterostomes and the Rhombozoa protostomes.[11]

This changeability of phyla has led some biologists to phone call for the concept of a phylum to exist abandoned in favour of cladistics, a method in which groups are placed on a "family tree" without any formal ranking of grouping size.[9]

Definition based on body program [edit]

A definition of a phylum based on torso plan has been proposed by paleontologists Graham Budd and Sören Jensen (as Haeckel had done a century earlier). The definition was posited because extinct organisms are hardest to classify: they can exist offshoots that diverged from a phylum's line before the characters that ascertain the modern phylum were all caused. By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives.

This arroyo brings some small problems—for example, ancestral characters common to well-nigh members of a phylum may have been lost past some members. Besides, this definition is based on an arbitrary point of time: the present. Notwithstanding, as it is character based, it is easy to utilize to the fossil record. A greater problem is that it relies on a subjective decision about which groups of organisms should be considered as phyla.

The approach is useful because it makes it easy to allocate extinct organisms every bit "stalk groups" to the phyla with which they comport the most resemblance, based simply on the taxonomically important similarities.[ix] Even so, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is hard, as information technology must brandish a character unique to a sub-set up of the crown group.[ix] Furthermore, organisms in the stem group of a phylum can possess the "body plan" of the phylum without all the characteristics necessary to fall within it. This weakens the idea that each of the phyla represents a distinct trunk plan.[12]

A classification using this definition may be strongly affected by the gamble survival of rare groups, which tin make a phylum much more diverse than it would be otherwise.[13]

Known phyla [edit]

Animals [edit]

Total numbers are estimates; figures from unlike authors vary wildly, not to the lowest degree considering some are based on described species,[xiv] some on extrapolations to numbers of undescribed species. For instance, effectually 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes take been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 1000000.[xv]

Protostome Bilateria Nephrozoa
Deuterostome
Basal/disputed Non-Bilateria
Vendobionta
Parazoa
Others
Phylum Pregnant Common proper noun Distinguishing characteristic Taxa described
Annelida Little ring [16] : 306 Segmented worms Multiple circular segments 22,000 + extant
Agmata Fragmented Agmates Calcareous conical shells v species, extinct
Archaeocyatha Aboriginal cups Archaeocyathids An extinct taxon of sponge-grade, reef-building organisms living in warm tropical and subtropical waters during the Early Cambrian. 3 known classes (Extinct)
Arthropoda Jointed human foot Arthropods Segmented bodies and jointed limbs, with Chitin exoskeleton 1,250,000+ extant;[14] 20,000+ extinct
Brachiopoda Arm foot[16] : 336 Lampshells[xvi] : 336 Lophophore and pedicle 300-500 extant; 12,000+ extinct
Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) Moss animals Moss animals, sea mats, ectoprocts[16] : 332 Lophophore, no pedicle, ciliated tentacles, anus outside ring of cilia vi,000 extant[xiv]
Chaetognatha Longhair jaw Arrow worms[sixteen] : 342 Chitinous spines either side of head, fins approx. 100 extant
Chordata With a cord Chordates Hollow dorsal nerve string, notochord, pharyngeal slits, endostyle, mail service-anal tail approx. 55,000+[14]
Cnidaria Stinging nettle Cnidarians Nematocysts (stinging cells) approx. 16,000 [14]
Ctenophora Comb bearer Comb jellies[xvi] : 256 Eight "comb rows" of fused cilia approx. 100-150 extant
Cycliophora Bicycle carrying Symbion Circular oral cavity surrounded by small cilia, sac-like bodies 3+
Echinodermata Spiny skin Echinoderms[xvi] : 348 Fivefold radial symmetry in living forms, mesodermal calcified spines approx. 7,500 extant;[14] approx. 13,000 extinct
Entoprocta Inside anus[16] : 292 Goblet worms Anus inside ring of cilia approx. 150
Gastrotricha Hairy stomach[16] : 288 Gastrotrich worms Two terminal adhesive tubes approx. 690
Gnathostomulida Jaw orifice Jaw worms[sixteen] : 260 Tiny worms related to rotifers with no body crenel approx. 100
Hemichordata One-half cord[16] : 344 Acorn worms, hemichordates Stomochord in collar, pharyngeal slits approx. 130 extant
Kinorhyncha Motion snout Mud dragons 11 segments, each with a dorsal plate approx. 150
Loricifera Corset bearer Brush heads Umbrella-like scales at each finish approx. 122
Micrognathozoa Tiny jaw animals Limnognathia Accordion-similar extensible thorax 1
Medusoid Jellyfish-like Medusoids These are extinct creatures described as jellyfish-like and inhabited the late Precambrian, Ediacaran and early on Cambrian. xviii genera, extinct
Mollusca Soft[16] : 320 Mollusks / molluscs Muscular pes and curtain round trounce 85,000+ extant;[14] 80,000+ extinct[17]
Nematoda Thread like Round worms, thread worms[16] : 274 Round cantankerous section, keratin cuticle 25,000 [14]
Nematomorpha Thread form[16] : 276 Horsehair worms, gordian worms[xvi] : 276 Long, sparse parasitic worms closely related to nematodes approx. 320
Nemertea A sea nymph[16] : 270 Ribbon worms, rhynchocoela[16] : 270 Unsegmented worms, with a proboscis housed in a cavity derived from the coelom called the rhynchocoel approx. 1,200
Onychophora Hook bearer Velvet worms[xvi] : 328 Worm-like animal with legs tipped by chitinous claws approx. 200 extant
Petalonamae Shaped like leaves No An extinct phylum from the Ediacaran. They are bottom-domicile and immobile, shaped similar leaves (frondomorphs), feathers or spindles. 3 classes, extinct
Phoronida Zeus's mistress Horseshoe worms U-shaped gut xi
Placozoa Plate animals Trichoplaxes[xvi] : 242 Differentiated top and bottom surfaces, 2 ciliated cell layers, amoeboid cobweb cells in betwixt 3
Platyhelminthes Flat worm[xvi] : 262 Flatworms[16] : 262 Flattened worms with no body crenel. Many are parasitic. approx. 29,500 [14]
Porifera Pore bearer Sponges[16] : 246 Perforated interior wall, simplest of all known animals 10,800 extant[14]
Priapulida Little Priapus Penis worms Penis-shaped worms approx. xx
Proarticulata Before articulates Proarticulates An extinct group of mattress-like organisms that display "glide symmetry." Institute during the Ediacaran. 3 classes, extinct
Rhombozoa (Dicyemida) Lozenge animal Rhombozoans[sixteen] : 264 Single anteroposterior axial celled endoparasites, surrounded by ciliated cells 100+
Rotifera Wheel bearer Rotifers[16] : 282 Anterior crown of cilia approx. 2,000 [14]
Saccorhytida Saccus : "pocket" and "wrinkle" Saccorhytus Saccorhytus is but nearly 1 mm (1.iii mm) in size and is characterized past a spherical or hemispherical body with a prominent mouth. Its body is covered by a thick simply flexible cuticle. Information technology has a nodule above its mouth. Effectually its torso are 8 openings in a truncated cone with radial folds. ane species, extinct
Tardigrada Slow step Water bears, Moss piglets Microscopic relatives of the arthropods, with a iv segmented body and head ane,000
Trilobozoa Iii-lobed creature Trilobozoan A taxon of by and large discoidal organisms exhibiting tricentric symmetry. All are Ediacaran-aged xviii genera, extinct
Vetulicolia Ancient dweller Vetulicolian Might possibly exist a subphylum of the chordates. Their trunk consists of two parts: a large front part and covered with a big "oral fissure" and a hundred round objects on each side that take been interpreted every bit gills - or at least openings in the vicinity of the animal. Their posterior pharynx consists of seven segments. 15 species, extinct
Xenacoelomorpha Foreign hollow form Subphylum Acoelomorpha and xenoturbellida Small, simple animals. Bilaterian, simply lacking typical bilaterian structures such as gut cavities, anuses, and circulatory systems[18] 400+
Total: xl 1,525,000 [fourteen]

Plants [edit]

The kingdom Plantae is divers in various ways by different biologists (run into Electric current definitions of Plantae). All definitions include the living embryophytes (land plants), to which may exist added the two greenish algae divisions, Chlorophyta and Charophyta, to form the clade Viridiplantae. The tabular array below follows the influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating "Plantae" with Archaeplastida,[19] a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions.

The definition and classification of plants at the division level also varies from source to source, and has changed progressively in recent years. Thus some sources place horsetails in sectionalisation Arthrophyta and ferns in division Monilophyta,[20] while others place them both in Monilophyta, as shown below. The segmentation Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes),[21] or for conifers lone equally below.

Since the first publication of the APG organization in 1998, which proposed a nomenclature of angiosperms up to the level of orders, many sources have preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as breezy clades. Where formal ranks have been provided, the traditional divisions listed below take been reduced to a very much lower level, e.grand. subclasses.[22]

Division Meaning Common proper noun Distinguishing characteristics Species described
Anthocerotophyta[23] Anthoceros-similar plants Hornworts Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular organisation 100-300+
Bryophyta[23] Bryum-like plants, moss plants Mosses Persistent unbranched sporophytes, no vascular arrangement approx. 12,000
Charophyta Chara-like plants Charophytes approx. one,000
Chlorophyta (Xanthous-)green plants[16] : 200 Chlorophytes approx. seven,000
Cycadophyta[24] Cycas-like plants, palm-like plants Cycads Seeds, crown of chemical compound leaves approx. 100-200
Ginkgophyta[25] Ginkgo-like plants Ginkgo, maidenhair tree Seeds not protected by fruit (single living species) only one extant; fifty+ extinct
Glaucophyta Blueish-dark-green plants Glaucophytes 15
Gnetophyta[26] Gnetum-like plants Gnetophytes Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels approx. 70
Lycopodiophyta,[21]

Lycophyta[27]

Lycopodium-like plants

Wolf plants

Clubmosses & spikemosses Microphyll leaves, vascular arrangement ane,290 extant
Magnoliophyta Magnolia-like plants Flowering plants, angiosperms Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels 300,000
Marchantiophyta,[28]

Hepatophyta[23]

Marchantia-like plants

Liver plants

Liverworts Imperceptible unbranched sporophytes, no vascular organisation approx. 9,000
Polypodiophyta,

Monilophyta

Polypodium-like plants
 Ferns Megaphyll leaves, vascular system approx. 10,560
Pinophyta,[21]

Coniferophyta[29]

Pinus-like plants

Cone-bearing plant

Conifers Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids 629 extant
Rhodophyta Rose plants Carmine algae Use phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments. approx. 7,000
Total: 14

Fungi [edit]

Division Pregnant Common name Distinguishing characteristics Species described
Ascomycota Float mucus[sixteen] : 396 Ascomycetes,[16] : 396 sac fungi Tend to have fruiting bodies (ascocarp).[30] Filamentous, producing hyphae separated past septa. Can reproduce asexually.[31] thirty,000
Basidiomycota Pocket-sized base fungus[16] : 402 Basidiomycetes,[16] : 402 club fungi Bracket fungi, toadstools, smuts and rust. Sexual reproduction.[32] 31,515
Blastocladiomycota Offshoot branch fungus[33] Blastoclads Less than 200
Chytridiomycota Little cooking pot mucus[34] Chytrids Predominantly Aquatic saprotrophic or parasitic. Accept a posterior flagellum. Tend to be single celled but tin also be multicellular.[35] [36] [37] 1000+
Glomeromycota Brawl of yarn fungus[sixteen] : 394 Glomeromycetes, AM fungi[16] : 394 Mainly arbuscular mycorrhizae present, terrestrial with a pocket-size presence on wetlands. Reproduction is asexual but requires plant roots.[32] 284
Microsporidia Small seeds[38] Microsporans[sixteen] : 390 1400
Neocallimastigomycota New cute whip mucus[39] Neocallimastigomycetes Predominantly located in digestive tract of herbivorous animals. Anaerobic, terrestrial and aquatic.[40] approx. 20 [41]
Zygomycota Pair fungus[16] : 392 Zygomycetes[sixteen] : 392 Most are saprobes and reproduce sexually and asexually.[40] aprox. 1060
Total: 8

Phylum Microsporidia is more often than not included in kingdom Fungi, though its verbal relations remain uncertain,[42] and it is considered a protozoan by the International Society of Protistologists[43] (see Protista, below). Molecular analysis of Zygomycota has found it to be polyphyletic (its members do not share an firsthand ancestor),[44] which is considered undesirable past many biologists. Accordingly, there is a proposal to cancel the Zygomycota phylum. Its members would exist divided between phylum Glomeromycota and four new subphyla incertae sedis (of uncertain placement): Entomophthoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, Mucoromycotina, and Zoopagomycotina.[42]

Protista [edit]

Kingdom Protista (or Protoctista) is included in the traditional five- or six-kingdom model, where it can be divers as containing all eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi.[sixteen] : 120 Protista is a polyphyletic taxon,[45] which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the by. Proposals have been fabricated to divide it among several new kingdoms, such as Protozoa and Chromista in the Cavalier-Smith arrangement.[46]

Protist taxonomy has long been unstable,[47] with different approaches and definitions resulting in many competing nomenclature schemes. The phyla listed here are used for Chromista and Protozoa by the Catalogue of Life,[48] adapted from the system used by the International Society of Protistologists.[43]

Phylum/Sectionalization Meaning Common name Distinguishing characteristics Example Species described
Amoebozoa Amorphous animal Amoebas Presence of pseudopodia Amoeba 2400
Bigyra Two rings
Cercozoa
Choanozoa Funnel animal Presence of a colar of microvilli surrounding a flagellum 125
Ciliophora Cilia bearer Ciliates Presence of multiple cilia and a cytostome Paramecium 4500
Cryptista Subconscious
Euglenozoa True eye animal Euglena 800
Foraminifera Pigsty bearers Forams Complex shells with one or more than chambers Forams 10000, 50000 extinct
Haptophyta
Loukozoa Groove animal
Metamonada Middle single-celled organisms Giardia
Microsporidia Small spore
Myzozoa Suckling animal 1555+
Ochrophyta Yellow establish Diatoms
Oomycota Egg fungus[xvi] : 184 Oomycetes
Percolozoa
Radiozoa Ray brute Radiolarians
Sarcomastigophora Flesh and whip bearer
Sulcozoa
Full: 19

The Catalogue of Life includes Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta in kingdom Plantae,[48] only other systems consider these phyla office of Protista.[49]

Leaner [edit]

Currently there are bacterial 40 phyla (non including "Blue-green alga") that have been validly published according to the Bacteriological Code[l]

  1. Acidobacteriota, phenotypically various and mostly uncultured
  2. Actinomycetota, High-Thousand+C Gram positive species
  3. Aquificota, deep-branching
  4. Armatimonadota
  5. Atribacterota
  6. Bacillota, Low-One thousand+C Gram positive species, such equally the spore-formers Bacilli (aerobic) and Clostridia (anaerobic)
  7. Bacteroidota
  8. Balneolota
  9. Bdellovibrionota
  10. Caldisericota, formerly candidate division OP5, Caldisericum exile is the sole representative
  11. Calditrichota
  12. Campylobacterota
  13. Chlamydiota
  14. Chlorobiota, green sulphur bacteria
  15. Chloroflexota, green not-sulphur bacteria
  16. Chrysiogenota, only 3 genera (Chrysiogenes arsenatis, Desulfurispira natronophila, Desulfurispirillum alkaliphilum)
  17. Coprothermobacterota
  18. Deferribacterota
  19. Deinococcota, Deinococcus radiodurans and Thermus aquaticus are "unremarkably known" species of this phyla
  20. Dictyoglomota
  21. Elusimicrobiota, formerly candidate division Thermite Group 1
  22. Fibrobacterota
  23. Fusobacteriota
  24. Gemmatimonadota
  25. Ignavibacteriota
  26. Kiritimatiellota
  27. Lentisphaerota, formerly clade VadinBE97
  28. Mycoplasmatota, notable genus: Mycoplasma
  29. Myxococcota
  30. Nitrospinota
  31. Nitrospirota
  32. Planctomycetota
  33. Pseudomonadota, the about well-known phylum, containing species such every bit Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  34. Rhodothermota
  35. Spirochaetota, species include Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease
  36. Synergistota
  37. Thermodesulfobacteriota
  38. Thermomicrobiota
  39. Thermotogota, deep-branching
  40. Verrucomicrobiota

Archaea [edit]

Currently at that place are 2 phyla that have been validly published according to the Bacteriological Code[50]

  1. Nitrososphaerota
  2. Thermoproteota, second virtually common archaeal phylum

Other phyla that have been proposed, merely not validly named, include:

  1. "Euryarchaeota", most mutual archaeal phylum
  2. "Korarchaeota"
  3. "Nanoarchaeota", ultra-pocket-sized symbiotes, unmarried known species

Run into also [edit]

  • Cladistics
  • Phylogenetics
  • Systematics
  • Taxonomy

Notes [edit]

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b McNeill, J.; et al., eds. (2012). International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code), Adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011 (electronic ed.). International Clan for Establish Taxonomy. Retrieved 14 May 2017.
  2. ^ "Life sciences". The American Heritage New Lexicon of Cultural Literacy (3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2005. Retrieved 4 October 2008. Phyla in the plant kingdom are ofttimes called divisions.
  3. ^ Berg, Linda R. (2 March 2007). Introductory Phytology: Plants, People, and the Environs (two ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 15. ISBN9780534466695 . Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  4. ^ Valentine 2004, p. 8.
  5. ^ Haeckel, Ernst (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen [The General Morphology of Organisms] (in German). Vol. i. Berlin, (Deutschland): G. Reimer. pp. 28–29.
  6. ^ Naik, V.N. (1984). Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 27. ISBN9780074517888.
  7. ^ Collins AG, Valentine JW (2001). "Defining phyla: evolutionary pathways to metazoan body plans." Evol. Dev. 3: 432-442.
  8. ^ Valentine, James W. (2004). On the Origin of Phyla. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 7. ISBN978-0-226-84548-7. Classifications of organisms in hierarchical systems were in use by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Commonly organisms were grouped according to their morphological similarities as perceived by those early on workers, and those groups were then grouped according to their similarities, and so on, to grade a hierarchy.
  9. ^ a b c d e Budd, Thou.E.; Jensen, S. (May 2000). "A disquisitional reappraisal of the fossil record of the bilaterian phyla". Biological Reviews. 75 (ii): 253–295. doi:ten.1111/j.1469-185X.1999.tb00046.ten. PMID 10881389. S2CID 39772232.
  10. ^ Rouse G.W. (2001). "A cladistic analysis of Siboglinidae Caullery, 1914 (Polychaeta, Annelida): formerly the phyla Pogonophora and Vestimentifera". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Lodge. 132 (ane): 55–80. doi:ten.1006/zjls.2000.0263.
  11. ^ Pawlowski J, Montoya-Burgos JI, Fahrni JF, Wüest J, Zaninetti Fifty (October 1996). "Origin of the Mesozoa inferred from 18S rRNA gene sequences". Mol. Biol. Evol. 13 (8): 1128–32. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025675. PMID 8865666.
  12. ^ Budd, Thousand. E. (September 1998). "Arthropod trunk-programme evolution in the Cambrian with an case from anomalocaridid muscle". Lethaia. 31 (3): 197–210. doi:ten.1111/j.1502-3931.1998.tb00508.x.
  13. ^ Briggs, D. E. Chiliad.; Fortey, R. A. (2005). "Wonderful strife: systematics, stalk groups, and the phylogenetic signal of the Cambrian radiation". Paleobiology. 31 (two (Suppl)): 94–112. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0094:WSSSGA]2.0.CO;two.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (30 August 2013). "Animal biodiversity: An update of nomenclature and diversity in 2013. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Creature Biodiversity: An Outline of College-level Nomenclature and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)". Zootaxa. 3703 (one): v. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.three.
  15. ^ Felder, Darryl L.; Army camp, David K. (2009). Gulf of Mexico Origin, Waters, and Biota: Biodiversity. Texas A&G Academy Printing. p. 1111. ISBN978-1-60344-269-five.
  16. ^ a b c d eastward f g h i j m 50 m northward o p q r s t u v westward x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj Margulis, Lynn; Chapman, Michael J. (2009). Kingdoms and Domains (quaternary corrected ed.). London: Bookish Printing. ISBN9780123736215.
  17. ^ Feldkamp, S. (2002) Modern Biology. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, The states. (pp. 725)
  18. ^ Cannon, J.T.; Vellutini, B.C.; Smith, J.; Ronquist, F.; Jondelius, U.; Hejnol, A. (four February 2016). "Xenacoelomorpha is the sister group to Nephrozoa". Nature. 530 (7588): 89–93. Bibcode:2016Natur.530...89C. doi:10.1038/nature16520. PMID 26842059. S2CID 205247296.
  19. ^ a b Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (22 June 2004). "Only Vi Kingdoms of Life". Proceedings: Biological Sciences. 271 (1545): 1251–1262. doi:ten.1098/rspb.2004.2705. PMC1691724. PMID 15306349.
  20. ^ Mauseth 2012, pp. 514, 517.
  21. ^ a b c Cronquist, A.; A. Takhtajan; W. Zimmermann (April 1966). "On the higher taxa of Embryobionta". Taxon. fifteen (iv): 129–134. doi:x.2307/1217531. JSTOR 1217531.
  22. ^ Chase, Mark W. & Reveal, James L. (Oct 2009), "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III", Botanical Periodical of the Linnean Society, 161 (2): 122–127, doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.ten
  23. ^ a b c Mauseth, James D. (2012). Phytology : An Introduction to Constitute Biology (fifth ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN978-one-4496-6580-vii. p. 489
  24. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 540.
  25. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 542.
  26. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 543.
  27. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 509.
  28. ^ Crandall-Stotler, Barbara; Stotler, Raymond Eastward. (2000). "Morphology and nomenclature of the Marchantiophyta". In A. Jonathan Shaw; Bernard Goffinet (eds.). Bryophyte Biological science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN978-0-521-66097-6.
  29. ^ Mauseth 2012, p. 535.
  30. ^ Wyatt, T., Wosten, H., Dijksterhuis, J. (2013). "Advances in Practical Microbiology Chapter 2 - Fungal Spores for Dispersion in Space and Time". Advances in Applied Microbiology. 85: 43–91. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-407672-three.00002-2. PMID 23942148. {{cite periodical}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ "Classifications of Fungi | Boundless Biology". courses.lumenlearning.com . Retrieved 5 May 2019.
  32. ^ a b "Archaeal Genetics | Dizzying Microbiology". courses.lumenlearning.com.
  33. ^ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (1 October 2016). "Blastocladiomycota". Diversity of Life. Susquehanna University. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  34. ^ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (9 January 2014). "Chytridiomycota". Diversity of Life. Susquehanna University. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  35. ^ "Chytridiomycota | phylum of fungi". Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 5 May 2019.
  36. ^ McConnaughey, M (2014). Physical Chemical Properties of Fungi. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-three.05231-4. ISBN9780128012383.
  37. ^ Taylor, Krings and Taylor, Thomas, Michael and Edith (2015). "Fossil Fungi Affiliate four - Chytridiomycota". Fossil Fungi: 41–67. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-387731-4.00004-ix.
  38. ^ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (12 March 2013). "Microsporidia". Diversity of Life. Susquehanna University. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  39. ^ Holt, Jack R.; Iudica, Carlos A. (23 April 2013). "Neocallimastigomycota". Diverseness of Life. Susquehanna University. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  40. ^ a b "Types of Fungi". BiologyWise. 22 May 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2019.
  41. ^ Wang, Xuewei; Liu, Xingzhong; Groenewald, Johannes Z. (2017). "Phylogeny of anaerobic fungi (phylum Neocallimastigomycota), with contributions from yak in China". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 110 (1): 87–103. doi:10.1007/s10482-016-0779-1. PMC5222902. PMID 27734254.
  42. ^ a b Hibbett DS, Folder G, Bischoff JF, Blackwell M, Cannon PF, Eriksson OE, et al. (May 2007). "A higher-level phylogenetic nomenclature of the Fungi" (PDF). Mycological Research. 111 (Pt 5): 509–47. CiteSeerX10.i.1.626.9582. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.004. PMID 17572334. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009.
  43. ^ a b Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; et al. (29 April 2015). "A College Level Classification of All Living Organisms". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0119248. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1019248R. doi:x.1371/journal.pone.0119248. PMC4418965. PMID 25923521.
  44. ^ White, Merlin M.; James, Timothy Y.; O'Donnell, Kerry; et al. (Nov–December 2006). "Phylogeny of the Zygomycota Based on Nuclear Ribosomal Sequence Data". Mycologia. 98 (6): 872–884. doi:10.1080/15572536.2006.11832617. PMID 17486964. S2CID 218589354.
  45. ^ Hagen, Joel B. (January 2012). "Five Kingdoms, More or Less: Robert Whittaker and the Broad Classification of Organisms". BioScience. 62 (i): 67–74. doi:10.1525/bio.2012.62.1.eleven.
  46. ^ Blackwell, Will H.; Powell, Martha J. (June 1999). "Reconciling Kingdoms with Codes of Nomenclature: Is It Necessary?". Systematic Biology. 48 (2): 406–412. doi:x.1080/106351599260382. PMID 12066717.
  47. ^ Davis, R. A. (nineteen March 2012). "Kingdom PROTISTA". College of Mountain St. Joseph . Retrieved 28 December 2016.
  48. ^ a b "Taxonomic tree". Catalogue of Life. 23 December 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2016.
  49. ^ Corliss, John O. (1984). "The Kingdom Protista and its 45 Phyla". BioSystems. 17 (two): 87–176. doi:x.1016/0303-2647(84)90003-0. PMID 6395918.
  50. ^ a b Euzéby JP, Parte AC. "Names of phyla". List of Prokaryotic names with Continuing in Nomenclature (LPSN). Retrieved 3 April 2022.

External links [edit]

  • Are phyla "real"? Is in that location really a well-defined "number of animal phyla" extant and in the fossil record?
  • Major Phyla Of Animals

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum

Posted by: allenmignobt.blogspot.com

0 Response to "On What Basis Do Taxonomists Group Animals Into Phyla"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel